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Brown, Kate, Plutopia:Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (Oxford, 2013).Google Scholar For an account based on rumors about the disasters that circulated prior to Chernobyl', see 1 February 2023. Vypiska iz Norm radiatsionnoi bezopasnosti NRB-76,' TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Vypiska iz protokola no. Above all, when it comes to emergency preparedness there are agencies that work together to ensure a plan is place when the time comes. Atamaniuk, V. G., Shirshev, L. G., and Akimov, N. I., Grazhdanksia oborona (Moscow, 1986), 1012.Google Scholar, 74. Margulis, U. Shoigu, S. K., Of MPVO k grazhdanskoi zashchite: Istoricheskii ocherk (Moscow, 1998);Google Scholar and Chernobyl's effects went well beyond radiation, rippling through the social and political fabric of a deteriorating society. For an overview of Soviet media accounts of the disaster in 1986-87, see 1. 3844 (report on shutdowns in Ukrainian nuclear energy sector, March 1983). com.ua/articles/2011/04/25/36971/ (last accessed November 10, 2014). On Soviet citizens reactions to the address, see Informatsiia ob otklikakh trudiashikhsia Ukrainskoi SSR po vystupleniiu General nogo sekretaria TsK KPSS tovarishcha M. S. Gorbacheva po Tsentral'nomu televideniiu 14 maia 1986 goda, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. See Drawing on declassified archival documents from Ukrainian archives and memoir literature, I explore the political and institutional logic that prevented the USSR from acting appropriately to protect citizens from the consequences of the nuclear accident. Dawson, Jane I., Eco-Nationalism: Anti-Nuclear Activism and National Identityin Russia, Lithuania, and Ukraine (Durham, 1996).Google Scholar Post-1991 Ukrainian scholarship on the disaster has expanded on this thesis. 25, spr. 2 (Spring 2012): 328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 14. Vozniak, V. As the interest in nuclear power increases, serious, The story of the explosion and contamination was and still is suppressed in the Soviet Union and, the author contends, by the CIA and other Western intelligence organizations fearful of public, During the Cold War, the nature, intent, and scale of Soviet civil defense were the subject of heated debate in the West. 50. Many accounts of the Chernobyl disaster erroneously state that Shcherbina made the final decision to evacuate on the evening of April 26, which is reflective of the extraordinary confusion that reigned at the time. UC San Francisco's Lydia Zablotska, MD, PhD, grew up in Ukraine, trained as physician . Razmyshleniia, Voices from Chernobyl:The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster, Atomic-Powered Communism: Nuclear Culture in the Postwar USSR, Atomnaia energiia i radiatsionnaia bezopasnost, Was There a Real Mineshaft Gap'? 3844 (report on shutdowns in Ukrainian nuclear energy sector, March 1983). Chernobyl's "exclusion zone" - a 32-km (19-mile) radius around the plant - remains largely devoid of human life, 36 years after a flawed reactor design and series errors by its operators caused a . An employee of Chernobylinterinform told me this during a June 2010 visit to the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. 3 (Moscow, 2008), 180280.Google Scholar For an argument that the Chernobyl disaster hastened Gorbachev's reforms, see It also led to a distrust and unease between Soviet citizens, specifically those in the evacuated and nearby areas, and President Gorbachov's regime. As part of the test (and in violation of safety rules) a number of the reactors safety systems were disabled. See TsDAHO, f. 1, op. This was despite the Chernobyl accident involving a unique reactor design, and a similar accident being physically impossible with light water reactors. Stikhi, ocherki, rasskazy, otryvki iz romanov ipovestei, interv'iu, Reportazh iz Chernobylia: Zapiski ochevidtsev.Kommentarii. For an account of Soviet propaganda extolling nuclear power, see The first lesson of Three Mile Island was the most basic - that emergency planning was needed. Gnatiuk, Neobkhodimosf MPVO-GO, 19. 2995,11.12-13 (report to Ukrainian CP Central Committee on Chernobyl liquidation effort, June 12,1986). The Fukushima reactors were early model. Spravka, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Shcherbak, Iurii Nikolaevich, Chernobyl (Moscow, 1991), 395401. The most significant fallout occurred across western Soviet Russia, Belarus and Ukraine; and the nearby settlements of Chornobyl and Pripyat (Clark and Smith, 1988). In "Chernobyl," starring Jared Harris and Emily Watson, the creators imagine confrontation where it was unthinkableand, in doing so, cross the line from conjuring a fiction to . 25, sprava (spr.) While many transnational histories of the nuclear arms race have been written, Kate Brown provides the first definitive account of the great plutonium disasters of the United States and the Soviet, Interestingly, voices from chernobyl the oral history of a nuclear disaster that you really wait for now is coming. 1 (unmarked document, apparently from April 26,1986, outlining radiation protection norms). If the destruction of the state brought the physical destruction of Jews, what determined the rescue of certain ones during the Holocaust? Smirnova, A. S., ed., Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii (Kiev, 2003), 34.Google Scholar. Medvedev, Grigori, The Truth about Chernobyl, trans. After the explosion of unit 4, the Soviet government rushed to lay blame for the catastrophe on a handful of mistakes made by expendable, easily scapegoated individuals and to defuse charges that the Soviet state could be held responsible. The Chernobyl disaster had other fallout: The economic and political toll hastened the end of the USSR and fueled a global anti-nuclear movement. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 400.Google Scholar, 52. 2 (Summer 1996): 297324. Some Russian-language scholarship about Soviet civil defense at Chernobyl argues that the organization's failures during the disaster resulted from a disproportionate emphasis on planning for wartime hazards and that it made major reforms in light of its experiences. The accident added to the publics distrust of government authorities. 7 (July 1977): 134;Google Scholar and Leon Gour, War Survival in Soviet Strategy: Soviet CivilDefense (Coral Gables, 1976). Dovidka 3-ho Upravlinnia KDB URSR, 1-5. The Chernobyl safety test has been described as akin to testing an airliners engines during a routine flight, something that should have been absolutely unthinkable. Some western analysts concluded that the shortcomings of the USSR's disaster response at Chernobyl proved that the USSR's much-discussed civil defense investment was either useless or illusory. But the test had . Lowy Institute, The abandoned fairground at Chernobyl (Photo: Ian Bancroft/Flickr). 3 The international response to Chernobyl was delayed because President Mikhail Gorbachev chose to defer the declaration of emergency for political reasons. Summits are too often harshly judged on what they deliver now rather than the agenda set for the future. Its a big challenge to manage the ambition for nuclear-powered subs and still juggle other crucial defence decisions. In early 1983, the ministry noted the problems of reliability and safety at nuclear power plants but evaluated the attendant costs entirely in terms of the economic losses resulting from repair shutdowns, not possible accident hazards. But . Valentina Shevchenko has made contradictory statements to this effect. Access to the Jupiter plant is still restricted by the Ukrainian security services. la., Atomnaia energiia i radiatsionnaia bezopasnost (Moscow, 1983), 14243.Google Scholar, 13. The city was evacuated in 1986 due to the Chernobyl disaster at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, located 14.5 kilometres (9.0 mi) north-northwest, the most disastrous single nuclear event in history. 2. The designers of the RBMK made design compromises that sacrificed safety in order to achieve this lower fuel cost. The consequences of this accident exceed 2-4 (KGB report on conditions around ChNPP, April 26,1986). Josephson, Paul R., Atomic-Powered Communism: Nuclear Culture in the Postwar USSR, Slavic Review The extent of Chernobyl's geopolitical fallout is less well known. 45. 25, spr. 26 kvitnia 1986r., DA SBU, f. 64 op. The negative sentiment towards nuclear energy, and a political unwillingness to even discuss the subject, is particularly problematic today when there is increasing pressure to move to low carbon forms of energy. bungee fitness naples fl. Shcherbak, , Chernobyl', 397.Google Scholar, 38. Total loading time: 0 Pipes, Richard, Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could Fight and Win a Nuclear War, Commentary Nuclear Disaster: A Spreading Cloud and an Aid Appeal; U.P.I. Marples, David R., Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR (Toronto, 1986), 111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 9. The severity and long persistence of radioactive contamination challenges the affected communities in many ways. See, for instance, Shcherbak, Chernobyl'. Voprosy i otvety (Moscow, 1989), 120.Google Scholar, 46. Dovidka 3-ho Upravlinnia KDB URSR pro nedoliki u roboti shtabiv tsivil noi oborony obiektiv atomnoi energetiki respubliki, Derzhavnyi arkhiv sluzhby bezpeky Ukrainy (DA SBU), f. 65, spr. la., Ignatenko, E. I., Kovalenko, A. P., and Troitskii, S. N., Chernobyl': Sobytiia i uroki. The popular focus is on renewable energy sources, primarily wind and solar. 64. With an outbreak of wildfires recently threatening the closed Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine, the Copernicus Emergency Mapping Service has been activated and the Copernicus Sentinel-2 satellite mission has imaged the fires and smoke, and mapped the resulting area of burned ground. Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management at Chernobyl July 2015 By libertyreview in History EDWARD GEIST SLAVIC REVIEW 74.1 (2015): 104-126 Ever since the accident at Chernobyl on April 26, 1986 became public knowledge, the Soviet government's response to this catastrophe has been the subject of bewilderment and withering criticism. At the time of the Chernobyl accident, on 26 April 1986, the Soviet Nuclear Power Programme was based mainly upon two types of reactors, the WWER, a pressurised light-water reactor, and the RBMK, a graphite moderated light-water reactor. On the organizational history of the Soviet nuclear power sector prior to Chernobyl', see 67, no. Medvedev, , The Legacy of Chernobyl, 4952.Google Scholar. 2558, ark. Baranovs'ka, Nataliia, Chornobyl's'ka trahediia: Narisi z istorii (Kiev, 2011).Google Scholar For an overview of Ukrainian historiography on Chernobyl until 2006, see 11A (1988), spr. 66. Karpan, N. V., Chernobyl: Mest mirnogo atoma (Kiev, 2005);Google Scholar and 48. Atamaniuk, V. G., Shirshev, L. G., and Akimov, N. I., Grazhdanksia oborona (Moscow, 1986), 1012.Google Scholar, 74. Attempts to control the situation encountered various obstacles: (1) insufficient preparedness; (2) rapidly evolving social conflicts and public demands; (3) complex, interwoven structures of competence, and (4) geographically fluctuating problem loads. A paper co-developed by the JRC and published in Nature compares the costs and benefits of flood risk reduction measures in Europe. But the KGB deemed this could be a manual for saboteurs and classified it Top Secret, so the operators were never aware of the danger. A major event of the 20th century had occurred. These sources however have the disadvantage of being intermittent, they cannot be relied upon to produce power at all times required. After the explosion of unit 4, the Soviet government rushed to lay blame for the catastrophe on a handful of mistakes made by expendable, easily scapegoated individuals and to defuse charges that the Soviet state could be held responsible. Geist, Edward, Was There a Real Mineshaft Gap'? Shkoda, V. G., Chernobyl: Dni ispytanii.Kniga svidetelstv. 58. Marples, David R., Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR (Toronto, 1986), 111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 9. Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Render date: 2023-03-04T05:38:26.289Z Legasov, V. A., Iz segodniav zavtra: Mysli vslukh Chernobyl i bezopasnost (Moscow, 1996), 57.Google Scholar, 76. Vypiska iz Norm radiatsionnoi bezopasnosti NRB-76,' TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Razmyshleniia (Moscow, 1988);Google Scholar and Stikhi, ocherki, rasskazy, otryvki iz romanov ipovestei, interv'iu (Kiev, 1988);Google Scholar Stay informed with the latest commentary and analysis on international events from experts at the Lowy Institute and around the world. Access to the Jupiter plant is still restricted by the Ukrainian security services. On the May 6 news conference, see Political Fallout: The Failure of Emergency Management at Chernobyl' Authors: Edward Geist Abstract Ever since the accident that destroyed unit 4 of the Chernobyl' Nuclear Power Plant on April. } On the construction of the sarcophagus, see Baranovs'ka, Chornobyl's'ka trahediia, 207-39, and on state measures to provide housing and employment to evacuees, see ibid., 182-85. The Chernobyl accident caused serious contamination of large areas in Norway in 1986. 2957,11. 14, no. Medvedev, Grigori, The Truth about Chernobyl, trans. 2997, ark. Abstract. 2. P-11-231 1 "Chernobyl" Lessons Learned for Post-Emergency Response VF.Demin1) and B.I.Yatsalo2) 1)RRC "Kurchatov Institute", Moscow 2) Obninsk Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering, Obninsk, Kaluga reg., Russia demin@nsi.kiae.ru; yatsalo@obninsk.ru INTRODUCTION The scale of the Chernobyl accident, non-total readiness in regulation and extraordinary unstable political File photo - A wolf stands in a field in the 18 mile exclusion zone around the . Large industrial accidents, building collapses, high-rise fires, airliner crashes, ship sinkings, and acts of terrorism are frequently classified as human-caused disasters. See 2 (excerpts from NRB-76). As the functional ratemeters at the plant were sensitive only up to 1000 microroentgens an hour (0.001 R/hr), the KGB reports state that at the immediate point of the accident, the radiation is up to 1000 microroentgen an hour. In reality, this was a mere l/10,000th of the actual ambient radiation at the plant. Baranovs'ka, Nataliia, Chornobyl's'ka trahediia: Narisi z istorii (Kiev, 2011).Google Scholar For an overview of Ukrainian historiography on Chernobyl until 2006, see 3,39.Google Scholar, 70. Since the early 1950s, some Americans had argued that the USSR possessed a vast, well-resourced civil defense organization that was far more capable than its American counterpart. 2337, ark. 25, sprava (spr.) See, for example, Burns, John F., Russians, Too, Joke Sadly on Atom-War Survival, New York Times, June 11,1982, A2.Google Scholar, 18. Many of these journals are the leading academic publications in their fields and together they form one of the most valuable and comprehensive bodies of research available today. On the organizational history of the Soviet nuclear power sector prior to Chernobyl', see 25, sp. The Truth About Chernobyl by Grigori Medvedev, the top Soviet physicist who was originally commissioned to investigate the tragedy, is at long last available to reveal the long-suppressed, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. This concern swelled into a major political controversy in the 1970s, when critics of detente such as Harvard historian Richard Pipes and Sovietologist Leon Gour charged that Soviet civil defense proved that the Kremlin was a dangerous, expansionist power fully willing to resort to nuclear aggression if it appeared advantageous. Nuclear Disaster: A Spreading Cloud and an Aid Appeal; U.P.I. 33, ark. Shoigu, S. K., Of MPVO k grazhdanskoi zashchite: Istoricheskii ocherk (Moscow, 1998);Google Scholar and 32, spr. D'iachenko, , Chernobylskaia katastrofa, 28.Google Scholar, 11. Medvedev, , The Truth about Chernobyl, 8083.Google Scholar, 34. 3,39.Google Scholar, 70. See TsDAHO, f. 1, op. 43. This graphite/water combination presented an inherent safety problem, that under certain operating conditions the RBMK could be very unstable, resulting in a risk of overheating. According to a decision by the Government Commission headed by the USSR Council of Ministers Deputy Chair Comrade B.E. The threat of global climate change has pushed governments around the world to consider alternative energy sources, including nuclear energy. Some Russian-language scholarship about Soviet civil defense at Chernobyl argues that the organization's failures during the disaster resulted from a disproportionate emphasis on planning for wartime hazards and that it made major reforms in light of its experiences. According to Gnatiuk, the civil defense staff of the RSFSR carried out exercises at all nuclear power stations in Russia prior to the Chernobyl disaster. See, for example, Gaidamak, V. A., Likvidatsiia posledstvii radioaktivnogo zarazheniia (Moscow, 1980), 4.Google Scholar, 26. 1. 4-6, 3436. Valentina Shevchenko, head of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR in 1986, insisted in a 2011 interview that the Kiev May Day parade went ahead at Moscow's insistence. 55, no. On 2526 April 1986 Chernobyls Unit 4 reactor was scheduled for a routine shut down. Facing increasing river flood risk in Europe: adaptation measures can save lives and billions of euro. Medvedev, The Legacy of Chernobyl, 54. More broadly, the Chernobyl accident has had a major impact on public and political attitudes towards the safety of nuclear energy. D'iachenko, A. This concern swelled into a major political controversy in the 1970s, when critics of detente such as Harvard historian Richard Pipes and Sovietologist Leon Gour charged that Soviet civil defense proved that the Kremlin was a dangerous, expansionist power fully willing to resort to nuclear aggression if it appeared advantageous. Has data issue: true Bomb Shelters in the USSR, 1945-1962, Grazhdanskaia oborona: Slozhnyi etap razvitiia, Neobkhodimost MPVO-GO: Podtverdilo vremia, Formirovaniia grazhdanskoi oborony v bor'be s stikhiinymi bedstviiami, Russians, Too, Joke Sadly on Atom-War Survival, Plutopia:Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters, When Safe Enough Is Not Good Enough: Organizing Safety at Chernobyl, Likvidatsiia posledstvii radioaktivnogo zarazheniia, Opyt likvidatsii Chernobyl skoi katastrofy, Trevozhnye dni i nochi Chernobylia: Sbornik rasskazov ivospominanii, Chernobyl': Sobytiia i uroki. An ironic example of this appeared in a May 8,1986, circular for party propagandists stating explicitly that the population is being promptly and fully informed about the ongoing work at the power plant and other measures. The circular itself, however, instructs recipients to destroy after reading. Ob avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES i likvidatsii ee posledstvii, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. 332 Contemporary European History Such a story, however, leaves a number of critical issues unaddressed. Lina Kushnir, Valentina Shevchenko: Provesty demonstratsiiu 1 travnia 1986-ho nakazali z Moskvy, Istorichna pravda, April 25,2011, at www.istpravda. Vozniak, Ignatenko, Kovalenko, and Troitskii, Chernobyl', 121. Informatsiine povidomlennia KDB URSR do TsK KPU pro vybukh 4-ho enerhobloka Chornobyl's'koyi AES. For instance, Paul Josephson states in his history of the Soviet nuclear power program that Soviet planners never anticipated an accident of such a scale, and apparently they never accumulated the medicines and equipment needed for nuclear civil defense purposes, except perhaps for the elite in capital cities. Paul R. Josephson, RedAtom: Russia's Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today (Pittsburgh, 2005), 260. 25, spr. Under the auspices of the UN Chernobyl Forum, WHO carried out its own independent health assessment of the accident. The power plant was within Chernobyl Raion, but the city was not the residence of the power plant workers. This was the only catastrophic nuclear accident that has occurred. See 2997, ark. Krutskikh, D. A., Memuary (Moscow, 2001), 4046.Google Scholar, 73. An employee of Chernobylinterinform told me this during a June 2010 visit to the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. 1012 Words5 Pages. 1 (January 1988): 32.Google Scholar. 3. Lowy Institute. Altunin, A. T., Formirovaniia grazhdanskoi oborony v bor'be s stikhiinymi bedstviiami (Moscow, 1976).Google Scholar, 17. 32, spr. 25, spr. As the functional ratemeters at the plant were sensitive only up to 1000 microroentgens an hour (0.001 R/hr), the KGB reports state that at the immediate point of the accident, the radiation is up to 1000 microroentgen an hour. In reality, this was a mere l/10,000th of the actual ambient radiation at the plant. 30. The Chernobyl safety test has been described as akin to testing an airliners engines during a routine flight, something that should have been absolutely unthinkable. 1, spr. 0 moral no-psikhologicheskoi obstanovke v respublike v sviazi s avarii na Chernobyl'skoi AES, Tsentral'nyi derzhavnyi arkhiv hromads'kykh obiednan Ukrainy (TsDAHO), fond (f.) 1, opis (op.) Ibid., 53. The RBMK's large size and relatively high complexity increased its construction costs, but it enjoyed the advantage of decreased fuel costs because it could run on low-enriched uranium, thanks to its superior neutron economy. 39, no. News announcement. 0 moral no-psikhologicheskoi obstanovke v respublike v sviazi s avarii na Chernobyl'skoi AES, Tsentral'nyi derzhavnyi arkhiv hromads'kykh obiednan Ukrainy (TsDAHO), fond (f.) 1, opis (op.) In 1986, . This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Alexievich, Svetlana, Voices from Chernobyl:The Oral History of a Nuclear Disaster, trans. 3,39. Clean-up is scheduled for completion by 2065. 1, spr. For one such scholarly account, see For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions It publishes over 2,500 books a year for distribution in more than 200 countries. The 1986 accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine, then part of the former Soviet Union, is the only accident in the history of commercial nuclear power to cause fatalities from radiation. A., Chernobylskaiakatastrofa: Dvadtsat letspustia (Moscow, 2006).Google Scholar For accounts touching on the role of civil defense during the disaster penned by the plant's assistant safety officer, see Medvedev, , The Truth about Chernobyl, 2528.Google Scholar, 25. 34, ark. Meltdown and immediate response. com.ua/articles/2011/04/25/36971/ (last accessed November 10, 2014). A further factor which weakened the Soviet regime was the enormous economic cost of dealing with the effects of the accident. Gessen, Keith (Champaign, 2005).Google Scholar, 7. 2995,11.12-13 (report to Ukrainian CP Central Committee on Chernobyl liquidation effort, June 12,1986). 39, no. Taubman, Phillip, At Moscow News Session: Brief and Not to Point, New York Times, May 7, 1986, A19.Google Scholar For the text of Gorbachev's May 14 address, see Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva po sovetskomu televideniiu, Pravda, May 15,1986,1. 2 (Spring 2012): 328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 14. See Obstanovka i meropriiatia po likvidatsii posledstvii avarii na Chernobyl skoi AES po sostoianiiu na 12 iiunia 1986 goda, TsDAHO, f. 1, op. Workers were conducting a test at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Ukraine when their operations spun out of control. Cambridge University Press is committed by its charter to disseminate knowledge as widely as possible across the globe. Overall, this detrimental accident proved that a process must be understood before it can be controlled. Valentina Shevchenko, head of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR in 1986, insisted in a 2011 interview that the Kiev May Day parade went ahead at Moscow's insistence. 26 kvitnia 1986r., DA SBU, f. 64, op. The accident at Chernobyl was the product of a lack of safety culture. 43. 32, spr. D'iachenko, A. Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-rf4gk Gnatiuk, Iu., Neobkhodimost MPVO-GO: Podtverdilo vremia, Grazhdanskaiazashchita 4, no. Women yet to smash glass ceiling in Australian diplomacy and security, Osaka G20: finding the right beat for hard conversation, Future Frigates and the wisdom of large surface ships, The first was at Three Mile Island, in the US, in 1979. See This reactor design, known in Russian as reaktor bol'shoi moshchnosti kanal'nyi (high-power channel-type reactor, RBMK), descended from Soviet plutonium-production reactor designs and consists of stainless steel tubes containing uranium fuel elements in which the light-water coolant boils, surrounded by graphite blocks that serve as a neutron moderator. l, torn (t.) 24, ark. I visited this shelter in June 2010 along with the shelter at ChNPP. 26 kvitnia 1986r., DA SBU, f. 64 op. Chernobyl was the second of three major nuclear accidents: As a consequence of Chernobyl, a number of governments decided to phase out nuclear energy programs, and others decided against proceeding with new nuclear programs. Gorbachev initiated a series of reforms which unintentionally hastened the collapse of the Soviet system. Beginning in 1945, the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union detonated hundreds of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, scattering a massive amount of radioactivity across the globe. 5, 35-36 (reports to Ukraine CP on rumors about Chernobyl', May 1986).